Ketamine Enhances Human Neural Stem Cell Proliferation and Induces Neuronal Apoptosis via Reactive Oxygen Species–Mediated Mitochondrial Pathway

作者：Xiaowen Bai, Yasheng Yan, Scott Glen Canfield, Maria Muravyeva, Chika Kikuchi, Ivan Žaja, John A. Corbett, Zeljko J. Bosnjak · 发表于：Anesthesia & Analgesia · 年份：2013 · DOI：10.1213/ane.0b013e3182860fc9 · 被引用次数：207 · 研究领域：Anesthesia and Neurotoxicity Research、Treatment of Major Depression、Neurogenesis and neuroplasticity mechanisms

BACKGROUND: Growing evidence indicates that ketamine causes neurotoxicity in a variety of developing animal models, leading to a serious concern regarding the safety of pediatric anesthesia. However, if and how ketamine induces human neural cell toxicity is unknown. Recapitulation of neurogenesis from human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) in vitro allows investigation of the toxic effects of ketamine on neural stem cells (NSCs) and developing neurons, which is impossible to perform in humans. In the present study, we assessed the influence of ketamine on the hESC-derived NSCs and neurons. METHODS: hESCs were directly differentiated into neurons via NSCs. NSCs and 2-week-old neurons were treated with varying doses of ketamine for different durations. NSC proliferation capacity was analyzed by Ki67 immunofluorescence staining and bromodeoxyuridine assay. Neuroapoptosis was analyzed by TUNEL staining and caspase 3 activity measurement. The mitochondria-related neuronal apoptosis pathway including mitochondrial membrane potential, cytochrome c distribution within cells, mitochondrial fission, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production were also investigated. RESULTS: Ketamine (100 µM) increased NSC proliferation after 6-hour exposure. However, significant neuronal apoptosis was only observed after 24 hours of ketamine treatment. In addition, ketamine decreased mitochondrial membrane potential and increased cytochrome c release from mitochondria into cytosol. Ketamine also enhanced...